Gender Differences in Crime

Gender Differences in Crime Criminal patterns by women and by men have both similarities and differences. Women and men are more prone to committing minor substance abuse and property crimes, rather than serious ones like murder or robbery. The main gender disparity in criminal activity is that men commit offenses at a higher rate than women do, except for prostitution (Heidensohn). Gender difference is more distinct in serious crimes, while it is least discernible in petty ones, which is a phenomenon called gender gap in offending (Rennison, 2009, p. 172). Particularly, it has been evidenced that 19% of criminal act perpetrators are women, yet they are also more likely victims of crime: as of late 2009, two women are slain every week by a former or current partner, and 44% of violent crimes against females are domestic (White, 2010). Meanwhile, women have been imprisoned for offenses like possession of stolen property, theft and drug charges. Other characteristics of female offenders include, (i) 15% have been confined to a psychiatric hospital, (ii) 40% have been drug-dependent since the year prior to their imprisonment, (iii) 20% have been in rehabilitation (White, 2010). A new focus of criminology is the study of criminal careers and although research on this topic has been limited to violent offenses, it has been established that (i) women perpetrate violent crimes to a much lesser degree than males; (ii) the criminal careers of violent women start and reach its peak a bit earlier than men; and (iii) to thoroughly comprehend the gender gap in crime, variables such as age and gender must be taken into account (Rennison, 2009). According to Callie Marie Rennison, race has always played an essential role in violent offending (175). She pointed out that minorities make up a large population of offenders. For instance, Rennison cites data from the U.S. Department of Justice gleaned from arrest reports and victimization surveys attesting that Blacks are disproportionately found among violent offenders (Rennison, 2007, p. 175). She also lamented the fact that studies on gender gap have largely omitted gender and age, and joins the call for moving beyond simple comparisons of offending by gender (Rennison, 2007, p. 175). Evidence attests that there is a substantial overlapping in the social perspective of criminal acts perpetrated by men and women (Hall, 2009, p. 5). To note, it has been proven that female and male offenders both usually have low socio-economic standing, come from minority groups, unemployed or under-employed, and poorly-educated (Hall, 2007). In light of these social implications on gender disparity in crime, there have been questions on whether biological factors could be stronger determinants in crime as compared to social factors. Here is a look at the differing theories on crime and gender disparity. Traditional theories about gender disparity in crime are, Anomie, Labeling and Personality Theory. Anomie postulates that females commit crimes at a lower rate than males because they are less subjected to cultural pressures to achieve success materially (Hall, 2007). In Labeling, parental acceptance of violence, neighborhood and home violence all increase the odds that a male will be involved in crime and violence (Ramoutar and Farrington, 2005.) Males who have had episodes of severe punishments at home for misdemeanors were less likely to commit property crimes or violent offenses. Meanwhile, men who were labeled negatively by people in his environment, and men who had poor self-esteems, were twice as likely to participate in violent and property crimes (Ramoutar and Farrington, 2005, p. 563) On the other hand, women who perceived that they were negatively labeled tended to participate in violent crimes, but females who have been at the receiving end of violence were more likely to be involved in both petty and violent crimes (Ramoutar and Farrington, 2005.) In contrast with their male counterparts, being subjected to severe punishments at home due to misdemeanors, increased females tendency to commit violent crimes. The most dominant personality dimensions that are associated with crime are self-centered orientation, low empathy, venturesomeness and impulsivity (Ramoutar and Farrington, 2005, p. 558). Male offenders were characterized by enjoyment of intense and new endeavors, as well as by risk taking all descriptive of venturesomeness. They also had low rates of empathy. In female offenders, venturesomeness and impulsivity were reasons for criminal behavior; and, self-centeredness increased female offending by 100%. Female offenders were not characterized by low empathy and low empathy (Ramoutar and Farrington, 2005). Biological Perspective The biological perspective on gender differences in crime rate points out that genetics determines the criminal behavior of a person. Neurochemicals trigger the behavioral tendencies and patterns in the human brain. One of these neurochemicals, monoamine oxidase (MOA), is linked to antisocial behavior: low levels of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) cause disinhibition, which, in turn, can result in aggression and impulsivity (Jones 2005). MOA has intertwining functions with other neurochemicals that have already been associated with criminal and antisocial behavior, like dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine are also closely linked with the personality factor of psychosis (Jones 2005). On the other hand, serotonin affects brain development, and low levels of serotonin plays a significant role in triggering bipolar disorder, anxiety and depression. Moreover, serotonin is closely linked with aggression, which can be a trigger for criminal behavior. Dopamine is one of the neurotransmitters of the brain that provides feelings of pleasure, and thus, motivates people to do certain acts. A study conducted by Katherine Morley and Dwayne Hall in 2003 showed that there is an association between violent offenders and the dopaminergic pathway (Morley and Hall, 2003). Basing on these information, it could also be plausible that genetics plays a role in criminal behavior. Hence, supporters of the biological theory in criminal behavior assert that crime rates may be curbed by monitoring offspring and immediate family of known criminals, so that they may be tested for MAO (Morley and Hall, 2003). On the other hand, critics point out that this is not easy to accomplish because of m oral implications youngsters could be classified as potential criminals even if they have not committed any offense yet. Also, there is the ever present fear that governments may start using drugs to wage battle against crime, instead of addressing relevant social problems. It is important to recall that gender disparity in crime high level of male offending in comparison with females is absolutely accepted by criminologists. It is also important to note that gender disparity varies according to time, geographic area, race and age of the perpetrators. If gender disparity is indeed caused by genes, then the former will not vary as it does according to time, geographic area, race and age of the perpetrators. Thus, the biological theory is rather inadequate to explain gender differences in crime rate. New Female Criminal Freda Adler, a criminal professor at Rutgers University, published a book in 1975, entitled Sisters in crime: The rise of the new female criminal (Adler, 1975). The profile of the new female criminal, as explained by Adler, was considered as the most powerful and influential expert on female criminality more than three decades ago. According to Adler, the feminist movement may be credited with promoting positive changes in womens lives, i.e., social position, employment, marriage and family (Hamilton, 2010). She noted that women used to have the same hopes and ambitions as men, but they have not been able to attain these because of oppression towards their gender. Womens liberation changed all these, as females began to be empowered to pursue their dreams and ambitions and achieve them. However, Adler explained that womens lib had a darker side (Hamilton, 2010). Just as they were being productive, they were also pressing into crime (Hamilton, 2010). Women began to compete with men, even in the criminal world, wherein they were attempting to carve their own niches. And just as women became stevedores, soldiers, lawyers and doctors; they also became terrorists, embezzlers, forgers and burglars (Hamilton, 2010). Adler theorized that with womens liberation, a new breed of women offenders had come on the scene. She noted that the feminist movement created structural opportunities which women took advantage of by adopting the same characteristics as men: risk-taking, aggression and assertiveness. These, she said, were also the same qualities that enabled men to commit crimes. Adler has since, authored three more books on the topic, but modern times has seen critics bringing down her theories. For one, Adlers theories are weak in the sense that there are no supporting research evidencing that females who lived liberated lives committed more crimes than their more traditional peers. In addition to this, while it has been proven that most women offenders come from the lower socio-economic ladder, these same women rejected feminist ideals as distinctly middle-class. Moreover, feminists themselves shot down her theories, stating that these undermined the good intentions of womens rights (Hamilton, 2 010). Thus, it may be said that the new female criminal is more of a myth than reality. Which Theory is Correct? There are certain things to consider before determining which theory about gender  differences in crime is correct. Women have been engendered by moral principles which inculcate nurturing values in them, which restrain them from committing injurious deeds to others. Hence, females were less apt to commit crimes than the male counterparts, because of their nurturing and dependent nature (Cole and Smith, 2007, p. 57). Moreover, the criminal environment demands violence and physical power, which may account for lesser frequency and seriousness of crimes committed by women. Male have enhanced physical prowess and strength needed to commit graver crimes (JRank, 2010). In addition to this, women who wanted quick money but had no other means of getting it had opportunities to go into prostitution rather than commit crimes (JRank, 2010). Taking into consideration all these information, majority of studies concede that traditional theories are not given the deserving credit for explaining the patterns in criminal activity as it pertains to gender differences. Most of these theories are backed by hard evidence, and have outlasted the numerous modern theories that have sprung up and just as quickly, debunked by one study or the other. Majority of theorists agree that traditional perspectives are inadequate in explaining gender disparity in serious crimes, but a painstaking study of available data from research and experiments reveal that there is simply not much information in this area. Thus, the trend towards studying gender equality/inequality in criminal behavior must be continued, taking into consideration both traditional and biological perspectives, towards learning more about serious crimes. In doing this, the greater goal of curbing crime rates through significant research may be achieved.

Major Works Data Sheet Essay

Plot summary: Heart of Darkness begins on the Thames river and told by an unknown narrator. He and several other men are on the deck of a ship when Marlow, a captain, begins to speak. Marlow had always wanted to travel to Africa and up the snakelike Congo River. With the help of his aunt in Brussels, Marlow gets a job as a boat captain on the river with a Dutch trading company that deals in ivory. After getting his assignment at the office in Brussels, he travels to the mouth of the Congo River in a French steamer, which drops off soldiers and clerks at many stations along the African coast. The site of a French man-of-war firing at nothing puzzles Marlow. When Marlow arrives at the mouth of the Congo, a Swedish captain takes him to the company’s Inner Station on a smaller boat. Outside of the station he sees Africans chained and working hard at worthless projects, with others nearby dying slowly. Marlow is impressed with the competence and dress of the accountant who works at this station. It is here that he firsts learns of Kurtz, an exceptional trader who is destined for great things. Marlow then travels to the company’s Central Station, walking two hundred miles inland with a sick, overweight white man who had to be carried by Africans, until they tired of it and abandoned him. Once at the station, Marlow meets the General Manager, a hollow man who got his job not by virtue of his merit but simply by remaining alive. His only talent is making people feel uneasy. The boat Marlow was supposed to captain had been torn up in an accident just before he arrived, so Marlow spends months at the station making repairs and waiting for rivets. During this time, Marlow watches many of the white men do no work and walk aimlessly. One day a building caught fire and they decided to punish an African for it. Marlow then meets another  hollow man, the brick maker, who has no mater ials to build bricks. The brick maker questions Marlow about his connections in Europe, and Marlow learns more about Kurtz, who is besides being an excellent trader, an artist and in Africa for the purpose of bringing light to the natives. Marlow determines that the brick maker is a spy for the manager and that neither likes Kurtz. The mysterious Kurtz increasingly intrigues Marlow. He overhears the manager and the manager’s corrupt uncle express their hatred and jealousy towards Kurtz, who is rumored to be ill. With the repairs complete, Marlow captained the boat upriver, manager on board, towards Kurtz’s station. He employed the help of a group of cannibals, whore frained from eating anyone in his presence. Just before arriving at Kurtz’s station, a tribe of Africans attacked the ship, and his African helmsman was killed, having lost his self-control. At this point Marlow worries that he may never meet Kurtz, but they find Kurtz’s station upriver. Greeted by a young Russian, Marlow finds out that Kurtz is very ill. He also finds out that Kurtz convinced a tribe he was a deity to use them to get more ivory. Kurtz goes crazy and runs for the woods, devoid of all restraint. Marlow finds him and helps him back to his bed. Kurtz gives Marlow some papers to give to people in Europe. Kurtz eventually dies, saying â€Å"The horror, the horror.† Marlow returns to Europe, delivers the papers, and eventually talks to Kurtz’s fiancà ©. She is still very idealistic and he cannot tell her about Kurtz’s last words, saying instead Kurtz uttered her name before dying.

Marketing Simulation Essay

The rest of the sales force time would be equally divided between the segments B, C and D. Change in Strategy: During simulation, we studied the effects of percentage increase of sales force time for each market segment individually along with decrease in list price. As we proceeded with the simulation, we found that * A decrease in list price and an increase in percentage sales force time for segment D would be more fruitful in the short run as it will increase the overall sales volume and overall profit much more than in the case where sales force concentrates more on segment A. This is because the overall market share of highly price sensitive customers in segment D and â€Å"small volume customers† is almost three times of segment A’s market share. * So, even though the profit margin in segment D and â€Å"small volume customers† is lesser than that for segment A, the overall profit was greater because of the scope of much higher sales volume. * Hence, we dec ided to increase the sales force percentage time for segment D to 40% and for segment A to 30%. We decreased the sales force time percentage for segments B and C to 15% each. Also, we reduced the list price from $142 to $136. Challenges during simulation: During simulation, the primary challenge we faced was to decide on the key parameters that should be changed and the level of change in each of these parameters to get optimum profit and higher market share. Key decisions: Since our initial strategy was to increase the sales volume of segment A, we decided to concentrate on sales force time percentage parameter for each segment and the list price of the motors. We studied the effects of percentage increase of sales force time for each market segment individually along with decrease in list price on the overall profit of the company. Solution Analysis Decrease in list price from $142 to $136 and increase in sales force time percentage to 40% for segment D and to 30% for segment A. As we proceeded with the simulation, we found that * A decrease in list price and an increase in percentage sales force time for segment D would be more fruitful in the short run as it will increase the overall sales volume and overall profit much more than in the case where sales force concentrates more on segment A. This is because the overall market share of highly price sensitive customers in segment D and â€Å"small volume customers† is almost three times of segment A’s market share. * So, even though the profit margin in segment D and â€Å"small volume customers† is lesser than that for segment A, the overall profit was greater because of the scope of much higher sales volume. * Segments B and C sales force time was reduced because of the high competition that MM faces in these categories on the basis of the rmal resistance parameter. Hence, in the long run, MM can target for higher profit margins than for higher sales volume if it concentrates the sales and market research resources to segments A, B and C. The main challenge with this approach is that it would difficult to attract customers from these segments who are already loyal to competitors and would require much more effort from the sales team and the product development team to come up with a product that caters the needs of these segments especially segments B and C where MM has yet to prove its overall competitiveness. Learning and experience This simulation exercise helped us to validate whether our suggested solution was an optimal one and also helped us to arrive at new solutions through experimentation which finally led to change in our overall decisions and strategy. It also showed us how varying a single parameter can change the overall market share and overall profits of the company. Finally, it reinforced the theory behind segmentation of customers according to their buying behavior to achieve optimal marketing strategies.

William Shakespeare s Othello And Othello - 932 Words

The relationships in Shakespeare’s plays are never simple and even less so when one narrows the field to his tragedies. In the case of Iago and Othello this complicated relationship is made more so by the interwoven theme of appearance verses reality. The idea of Iago, the wolf in sheep’s clothing, fighting both for and against his master that permeates the play. Othello, however, a seasoned warrior being unable to see through the guise is a flaw his companion takes advantage of. Iago’s hatred is the biggest mystery of this play, making the reader wish Shakespeare had written a prequel. That prequel would defiantly clear up the currently unexplainable hatred Iago feels for Othello, who trusts his companion to his own fall. Iago does not wish for Othello, or anyone but Roderigo, to know of his involvement on Brabantio finding out about the marriage, telling Roderigo â€Å"I must show out a flag and sign of love, / Which is indeed but a sign.†(559). Iago goes on to defend his master against his confidant drawing swords. Iago’s hatred is hard to question, but the motives are, like many things concerning Iago, notoriously masked. To Roderigo he makes it clear the hate comes from Cassio being promoted over himself in the first scene of the first act even before the reader knows of whom he is speaking. Then in the closing of the first act Iago spills out to the fourth wall that rumour has it â€Å"’twixt my sheets/ has done my office.†(572) and though he has no proof that Othello sleptShow MoreRelatedOthello : William Shakespeare s Othello2542 Words   |  11 Pages3 March 2015 Othello Introduction Shakespeare is the second most quoted writer in the English language – after the various writers of the Bible. Many of Shakespeare’s ideas for the play Othello came from a collection of tales written by Giraldi Cinthio. 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